It hurts if u play with fire

ECONOMY

2009-11-07T20:18:00.000-08:00

An economy is the ways in which people use their environment to meet their material needs. It is the realized economic system of a country or other area. It includes the production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area. The study of different types and examples of economies is the subject of economic systems. A given economy is the end result of a process that involves its technological evolution, history and social organization, as well as its geography, natural resource endowment, and ecology, among other factors. These factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parameters in which an economy functions.

The economy includes several sectors (also called industries), that evolved in successive phases.

* The ancient economy was mainly based on subsistence farming.

* The industrial revolution lessened the role of subsistence farming, converting it to more extensive and monocultural forms of agriculture in the last three centuries. The economic growth took place mostly in mining, construction and manufacturing industries.

* In the economies of modern consumer societies there is a growing part played by services, finance, and technology—the (knowledge economy).

In modern economies, there are four main sectors of economic activity:[citation needed]

* Primary sector of the economy: Involves the extraction and production of raw materials, such as corn, coal, wood and iron. (A coal miner and a fisherman would be workers in the primary sector.)
* Secondary sector of the economy: Involves the transformation of raw or intermediate materials into goods e.g. manufacturing steel into cars, or textiles into clothing.A builder and a dressmaker would be workers in the secondary sector.
* Tertiary sector of the economy: Involves the provision of services to consumers and businesses, such as baby-sitting, cinema and banking.A shopkeeper and an accountant would be workers in the tertiary sector.
* Quaternary sector of the economy: Involves the research and development needed to produce products from natural resources.A logging company might research ways to use partially burnt wood to be processed so that the undamaged portions of it can be made into pulp for paper.Note that education is sometimes included in this sector.

More details about the various phases of economic development belong to the history section on this article. As this process was far from being homogeneous geographically, the balance between these sectors differs widely among the various regions of the world.

Other sectors include the

* Public Sector or state sector
* Private Sector or privately-run businesses
* Social sector or Voluntary sector

2009-11-01T19:27:00.000-08:00

Yamaha R125

The most advanced 125 production super sport machine that Yamaha will launch in 2009 will be YZF-R125. This radical, high-revving, fuel-injected 125 is the work of the same engineers who created our legendary YZF-R1 and YZF-R6 super sport bikes.

Main Features of Yamaha R125:
-Liquid-cooled single-cylinder 4-stroke
-SOHC 4-valve cylinder head
-Wet-sump lubrication system
-Fuel injection
-Electric start
-6-speed transmission
-R6-style mid-ship muffler
-Dual catalyzers
-Air Induction system

With its R-series styling, sporty performance and handling, the YZF-R125 is the perfect introduction to super sport riding.

Its liquid-cooled, 4-stroke, 4-valve, single cylinder, SOHC engine is tuned to deliver free-revving performance. Like all R-series bikes, it features a lightweight Delta box frame; linked to a cast aluminium swinging-arm it gives the R125 class-leading handling.

Lightweight 5-spoke wheels help to minimize unsprung weight to give impressive road holding, while effective stopping power comes from a large diameter 292mm front disc and 230mm diameter rear disc.

Some of the technical information about Yamaha R125:

Features -

* Dynamic official Team Yamaha graphics
* Free-revving, fuel injected 4-stroke engine
* Aggressive R-series styling
* 6-speed transmission
* Deltabox frame and aluminium swinging arm
* R6 style mid-ship muffler

Engine -

Engine type Liquid-cooled, 4-stroke, single cylinder, 4-valve, SOHC
Displacement 124.66 cc
Bore x stroke 52.0 x 58.6 mm
Compression ratio 11.2 : 1
Maximum power 11.0 kW (15 PS) @ 9,000 rpm
Maximum torque 12.24 Nm (1.25 kg-m) @ 8,000 rpm
Lubrication system Wet sump
Fuel System Fuel injection
Clutch type Wet, multiple-disc coil spring
Ignition system TCI
Starter system Electric
Transmission system Constant mesh, 6-speed
Final transmission Chain
Fuel tank capacity 13.8 L
Oil tank capacity 1.15 L

Chassis -

Chassis: Steel Deltabox
Front suspension system Telescopic forks
Front travel 130 mm
Rear suspension system Swingarm (monocross)
Rear travel 125 mm
Caster angle 24.2°
Trail 86.1 mm
Front brake Single disc, Ø 292 mm
Rear brake Single disc, Ø 230 mm
Front tyre 100/80-17 M/C
Rear tyre 130/70-17 M/C

Dimensions -

Length 2,015 mm
Width 660 mm
Height 970 mm
Seat height 818 mm
Wheel base 1,355 mm
Minimum ground clearance 155 mm
Wet weight 138 kg

YAMAHA BIKES

2009-11-01T19:25:00.000-08:00

Yamaha have released these pics of the 2008 R6 and R125 bikes. The 2008 R6 gets a mild style makeover, new chassis and swingarm, freshly fettled 599cc engine with titanium valves, slipper clutch and better front brakes.
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With the new YZF R6, Yamaha are going all out on the performance front – they’ve increased the engine’s compression ratio from 12.8:1 to 13.1:1 and fitted their YCC-I (Yamaha Chip-Controlled Intake) system found on the 2007 R1. This system essentially comprises of a variable-length air-intake system which boosts power at higher revs. The 2008 R6 also gets remapped fuel injection for better throttle response.

2008 R6 paintjobs look good, but we're still undecided about the gold painted wheels....

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.The new R6's chassis gets a magnesium alloy subframe, which is supposed to improve mass centralization. Other changes are increased brake rotor thickness for better heat dissipation, and new colour schemes. The 2007 Honda CBR600RR had thrashed the Yamaha R6 in most bike magazine shootouts this year. Whether the 2008 R6 can claw its way back to the top remains to be seen...

The learner legal 2008 Yamaha YZF R125

For those who are just starting off with bikes, Yamaha have also shown the new YZF R125, which is learner legal. The bike is fitted with a liquid-cooled, four-valve, 124cc, fuel-injected, single-cylinder engine, which is mated to a six-speed gearbox. Styling cues are taken from the latest R6, which is so important when there are teenaged girlfriends to impress…

This is a US-spec colour scheme for the 2008 R6...

WI-FI TECHNOLOGY

2009-05-23T04:33:00.000-07:00

WI-FI Technology is the wireless connectivity technology. A WI-FI enabled device can be used to access without the mesh of wires. The only thing is that you are just required to install the wireless enabled device. It will automatically provide access to its range. This technology works on the principle of radio frequency. The three types of ranges available with WI-FI are Hotspot Use, Home spot Use and Work spot Use. The main purpose of WI-FI is to hide the complexity. The main aim is to access to the information easier and to eliminate wires and cables. It allows connectivity in peer to peer mode which helps us to connect the device directly with each other. Now the WI-FI Technology has improved to provide with Secure Computer Networking Gateway, Firewall, and DHCP Server etc.

GMAT

2009-03-20T09:34:00.000-07:00

GMAT is nothing but the GRADUATE MANAGEMENT ADMISSION TEST. This GMAT is gonna be a four hours online examination for a total score of 800 marks. This examination will test your math problem solving, data sufficiency, reading comprehension, grammar related questions like sentence correction and critical reasoning and proficiency in written language which you have to type two essays in 1 hour. This essay consists of 6 marks. Here the total score that you have soared will go up or down in ten point increment. For example, your score may be 500 or 510 but never 504 or 505.In GMAT, you will see a percentile ranking .In GMAT, English would be comparatively harder than Mathematics.
Now let me tell u something about the preparation for GMAT.Many people says that it takes long time to prepare for GMAT. That’s all nothing. The reasonable time period is 3 to 4 months if you are quite good at the BASICS. One important thing that all the GMAT takers have to do is that they have to take a model online test whenever you finish preparing a topic. This helps to know your level. After completing your preparation start writing online mock test at least for a week or 10 days.

BLACK MARKET

2009-03-20T09:25:00.000-07:00

This is just an information about black market..

Black Market is a place where the goods are smuggled and sold illegally. For example illegal drugs, weapons, alcohol etc are some of the items that are sold illegally now days. This black market can also be called as Underground economy, Black economy, Underdog or parallel economy. This black market comprises tax evaded income. The two types of taxes which comprise this black market are direct tax and indirect tax. Direct tax means income tax, corporate tax. Indirect tax means tax on services. Black money exists practically in every economy, but the range differs from country to country. Black Money is used in many ways (i.e.) It is used to bribe regulators and law enforcement. This black money which is saved is held as deposits in foreign banks as liquid currency, gold or diamond etc .In the Black Market, the goods which are sold illegally can be either in low rates than the original market price or rates more than the original market price. But the goods which are sold illegally are in lower rates only.

Black market spoils the country’s name and brings down the economy. We should get the computerized bill for each and every product we buy from the shop. This helps to pay our service tax and helps to improve our economy rate.

Indian Education

2009-03-05T10:13:00.000-08:00

Education builds the man so it builds the nation.The present education system in India mainly comprises of primary education, secondary education, senior secondary education and higher education. Primary education consists of eight years of education. Each of secondary and senior secondary education consists of two years of education. Higher education in India starts after passing the higher secondary education.One such measure is the introduction of the reservation system in the institutes of higher education. Under the present law, 7.5% seats in the higher educational institutes are reserved for the scheduled tribes, 15% for scheduled castes and 27% for the non creamy layers of the Other Backward Classes.

MEDICINE

2008-09-22T10:42:00.000-07:00

So medicines sound like a pretty good thing, right? In many cases they are — as long as they are used correctly. Too much of a medicine can be harmful, and old or outdated medicines may not work or can make people sick. Taking the wrong medicine or medicine prescribed for someone else is also very bad news. You should also always follow your doctor's instructions for taking medicine — especially for how long. If your doctor says to take medicine for 10 days, take it for the whole time, even if you start to feel better sooner. Those medicines need time to finish the job and make you better!

MIGRAIN HEADACHE

2008-08-22T04:05:00.000-07:00

Signs and Symptoms

The headache from a migraine, classic or common, has the following characteristics:

Throbbing, pounding, or pulsating pain
Often, begins on one side of your head and may spread to both or stay localized
Most intense pain is often concentrated around the temple(s) (side of the forehead)
Commonly lasts from 6 to 48 hours

Accompanying symptoms that may precede or occur at the same time as the migraine include:

Nausea and vomiting
Dizziness described as lightheadedness or even vertigo (feeling like the room is spinning)
Loss of appetite
Fatigue
Visual disturbances, like seeing flashing lights or zigzag lines, temporary blind spots (for example, loss of your peripheral vision), or blurred vision
Eye pain
Extreme sensitivitity to light (called photophobia)
Parts of your body may feel numb, weak, or tingly
Light, noise, and movement—especially bending over—make your head hurt worse; you want to lie down in a dark, quiet room
Irritability

Symptoms that may linger even after the migraine has resolved:

Feeling mentally dull, like your thinking is not clear or sharp
Increased need for sleep
Neck pain

NEUTROPENIA

2008-07-12T08:23:00.000-07:00

Neutropenia is a blood disorder that can affect anyone. Some people are born with it. It can happen after a viral infection. In some cases the cause can be a side effect of a drug, or exposure to certain poisons. People can get neutropenia when treated for cancer with chemotherapy drugs. Sometimes it happens for no known reason.

Blood is made up of billions of cells. There are many different types of blood cells, but most of the time you hear about two kinds - red cells and white cells. There are more red cells than any other type of blood cell. They are very important as they carry oxygen from your lungs to all parts of your body. White blood cells are just as important, but for a very different reason. One of their jobs is to protect you from infection. There are several kinds of white cells. Each has a special function.

CLUSTER HEADACHE

2008-07-08T05:36:00.001-07:00

What Causes Cluster Headaches?

The exact cause of cluster headaches is not known. Many experts believe that cluster headaches and migraine headaches have a common cause that begins in the trigeminal nerve, a nerve that carries sensations from the head to the brain and that ends in the blood vessels that surround the brain. Other experts link cluster headaches to the hypothalamus, an area of the brain. Either explanation would account for the periodic nature of the headache.

What Are The Symptoms of Cluster Headaches?

Cluster headaches often occur with the following symptoms:

Deep, stabbing pain around the temple or the eye
Stuffy or runny nose
Tearing and redness in one eye
Droopy eyelid

How Are Cluster Headaches Treated?

People with cluster headaches usually receive drug therapies. These treatments may be classified as abortive or preventive.

Abortive treatments are directed at stopping or reducing the severity of an attack, and include:

Inhalation of high-flow, concentrated oxygen
Injection of Depo-Medrol
Imitrex injection
Dihydroergotoamine injection and ergotomine tartrate tablets
Zomig, Zomig-ZMT, and Zomig nasal spray
Maxalt, Maxalt-MLT
Axert
Deltasone

Preventive treatments are used to reduce the frequency and intensity of cluster headaches and improve the person's quality of life. Preventive drugs include:

Blood pressure medications, such as beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers
Antidepressants
Anticonvulsants
Periactin
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as Naprosyn
Sansert
Calan, Verelan, Covera-HS
Eskalith, Lithane, Lithobid, Lithonate, Lithotabs

Surgeries including nerve blocks, ablative neurosurgical procedures and radiosurgery have helped some people with cluster headaches. Nerve blocks involve the injection of pain medicine into or around a nerve or the spine. Ablative neurosurgical procedures are operations that involve the removal or destruction of a part of the brain, the spinal cord, or a nerve. Radiosurgery, a type of surgery that uses radiant energy and does not involve cutting, recently has been used to provide a less invasive alternative for people who have persistent cluster headaches.

Some people with cluster headaches have been helped by alternative or complementary therapies such as chiropractic, acupuncture, osteopathic manipulation, and herbal remedies.

ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE

2008-07-08T05:34:00.000-07:00

What is Alzheimer's disease?

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a slowly progressive disease of the brain that is characterized by impairment of memory and eventually by disturbances in reasoning, planning, language, and perception. Many scientists believe that Alzheimer's disease results from an increase in the production or accumulation of a specific protein (beta-amyloid protein) in the brain that leads to nerve cell death.

The likelihood of having Alzheimer's disease increases substantially after the age of 70 and may affect around 50% of persons over the age of 85. Nonetheless, Alzheimer's disease is not a normal part of aging and is not something that inevitably happens in later life. For example, many people live to over 100 years of age and never develop Alzheimer's disease.

MELANOMA

2008-07-08T05:33:00.000-07:00

What is melanoma?

Melanoma is a type of skin cancer. It begins in cells in the skin called melanocytes. To understand melanoma, it is helpful to know about the skin and about melanocytes—what they do, how they grow, and what happens when they become cancerous.

The skin

The skin is the body's largest organ. It protects against heat, sunlight, injury, and infection. It helps regulate body temperature, stores water and fat, and produces vitamin D.

The skin has two main layers: the outer epidermis and the inner dermis.

The epidermis is mostly made up of flat, scalelike cells called squamous cells. Round cells called basal cells lie under the squamous cells in the epidermis. The lower part of the epidermis also contains melanocytes.

The dermis contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, hair follicles, and glands. Some of these glands produce sweat, which help regulate body temperature. Other glands produce sebum, an oily substance that helps keep the skin from drying out. Sweat and sebum reach the skin's surface through tiny openings called pores.

Melanocytes and moles

Melanocytes produce melanin, the pigment that gives skin its natural color. When skin is exposed to the sun, melanocytes produce more pigment, causing the skin to tan, or darken.

Sometimes, clusters of melanocytes and surrounding tissue form noncancerous growths called moles. (Doctors also call a mole a nevus; the plural is nevi.) Moles are very common. Most people have between 10 and 40 moles. Moles may be pink, tan, brown, or a color that is very close to the person's normal skin tone. People who have dark skin tend to have dark moles. Moles can be flat or raised. They are usually round or oval and smaller than a pencil eraser. They may be present at birth or may appear later on—usually before age 40. They tend to fade away in older people. When moles are surgically removed, they normally do not return.

BOTULISM

2008-07-08T05:28:00.000-07:00

What is botulism?

Botulism is a serious illness that causes flaccid paralysis of muscles. It is caused by a neurotoxin, generically called botulinum toxin, that is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. There are seven distinct neurotoxins (types A-G) that Clostridium botulinum produce, but types A, B, and E (rarely F) are the most common that produce the flaccid paralysis in humans. The other types mainly cause disease in animals. Most Clostridium species produce only one type of neurotoxin.

The recorded history of botulism begins in 1735, when the disease was first associated with German sausage (food-borne disease, or food poisoning after eating sausage). In 1870, a German physician by the name of Muller derived the name botulism from the Latin word for sausage. Clostridium botulinum bacteria were first isolated in 1895, and a neurotoxin that it produces was isolated in 1944 by Dr. Edward Schantz.

How many kinds of botulism are there?

There are three main kinds of botulism, which are categorized by the way in which the disease is acquired:

Food-borne botulism is caused by eating foods that contain the botulinum neurotoxin.

Wound botulism is caused by neurotoxin produced from a wound that is infected with the bacteria Clostridium botulinum.

Infant botulism occurs when an infant consumes the spores of the botulinum bacteria. The bacteria then grow in the intestines and release the neurotoxin.

Three other kinds of botulism have been described but are seen rarely. The first is adult intestinal colonization that is seen in older children and adults with abnormal bowels. Only rarely does intestinal infection with the Clostridium botulinum bacteria occur in adults. Typically, the adult form of this intestinal botulism is related to abdominal surgical procedures. The second kind (injection botulism) is seen in patients injected with inappropriately high amounts of therapeutic neurotoxin (for example, Botox, Dysport), while the third kind (inhalation botulism) has occurred in laboratory personnel who work with the neurotoxins. All of these six kinds of botulism are potentially fatal.

How serious is botulism?

Botulinum neurotoxin is considered one of the most potent, lethal substances known. As little as about one nanogram/kg can be lethal to an individual, and scientists have estimated that about one gram could potentially kill one million people. All forms of botulism can be fatal and are considered medical emergencies. Food-borne botulism can be especially dangerous because many people can be poisoned by eating even small amounts of neurotoxin-contaminated food. A botulism outbreak is a public-health emergency that is reportable to the U.S. government.

How does botulism neurotoxin affect the body?

A neurotoxin actually paralyzes the nerves so that the muscles cannot contract. This happens when the neurotoxin enters nerve cells and eventually interferes with the release of acetylcholine so the nerve cannot stimulate the muscle to contract. Unless the nerve can regenerate a new axon that has no exposure to the neurotoxin, the interference at the neuromuscular junction is permanent. This is why it takes so long to recover from botulism and also why cosmetic and therapeutic uses of diluted neurotoxin can be effective for relatively lengthy time periods.

What kind of organism is Clostridium botulinum?

Clostridium botulinum is the name of bacteria commonly found in soil all over the world. The bacteria are considered to be anaerobic, which means these rod-shaped organisms grow best in low or absent oxygen levels. Clostridium form spores which allow the bacteria to survive in a dormant state until exposed to conditions that can support growth. There are seven types of botulism neurotoxin designated by the letters A through G. Only types A, B, E, and F cause illness in humans.

MESOTHELIOMA

2008-07-01T10:02:00.000-07:00

Mesothelioma is a form of cancer that is almost always caused by previous exposure to asbestos. In this disease, malignant cells develop in the mesothelium, a protective lining that covers most of the body's internal organs. Its most common site is the pleura (outer lining of the lungs and chest cavity), but it may also occur in the peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity) or the pericardium (a sac that surrounds the heart).

Most people who develop mesothelioma have worked on jobs where they inhaled asbestos particles, or they have been exposed to asbestos dust and fibre in other ways, such as by washing the clothes of a family member who worked with asbestos. Unlike lung cancer, there is no association between mesothelioma and smoking.^[1] Compensation via asbestos funds or lawsuits is an important issue in mesothelioma (see asbestos and the law).

The symptoms of mesothelioma include shortness of breath due to pleural effusion (fluid between the lung and the chest wall) or chest wall pain, and general symptoms such as weight loss. The diagnosis can be made with chest X-rays and a CT scan, and confirmed with a biopsy (tissue sample) and microscopic examination. A thoracoscopy (inserting a tube with a camera into the chest) can be used to take biopsies. It allows the introduction of substances such as talc to obliterate the pleural space (called pleurodesis), which prevents more fluid from accumulating and pressing on the lung. Despite treatment with chemotherapy, radiation therapy or sometimes surgery, the disease carries a poor prognosis. Research about screening tests for the early detection of mesothelioma is ongoing.

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of mesothelioma may not appear until 20 to 50 years after exposure to asbestos. Shortness of breath, cough, and pain in the chest due to an accumulation of fluid in the pleural space are often symptoms of pleural mesothelioma.

Symptoms of peritoneal mesothelioma include weight loss and cachexia, abdominal swelling and pain due to ascites (a buildup of fluid in the abdominal cavity). Other symptoms of peritoneal mesothelioma may include bowel obstruction, blood clotting abnormalities, anemia, and fever. If the cancer has spread beyond the mesothelium to other parts of the body, symptoms may include pain, trouble swallowing, or swelling of the neck or face.

These symptoms may be caused by mesothelioma or by other, less serious conditions.

Mesothelioma that affects the pleura can cause these signs and symptoms:

chest wall pain
pleural effusion, or fluid surrounding the lung
shortness of breath
fatigue or anemia
wheezing, hoarseness, or cough
blood in the sputum (fluid) coughed up (hemoptysis)

In severe cases, the person may have many tumor masses. The individual may develop a pneumothorax, or collapse of the lung. The disease may metastasize, or spread, to other parts of the body.

Tumors that affect the abdominal cavity often do not cause symptoms until they are at a late stage. Symptoms include:

abdominal pain
ascites, or an abnormal buildup of fluid in the abdomen
a mass in the abdomen
problems with bowel function
weight loss

In severe cases of the disease, the following signs and symptoms may be present:

blood clots in the veins, which may cause thrombophlebitis
disseminated intravascular coagulation, a disorder causing severe bleeding in many body organs
jaundice, or yellowing of the eyes and skin
low blood sugar level
pleural effusion
pulmonary emboli, or blood clots in the arteries of the lungs
severe ascites

A mesothelioma does not usually spread to the bone, brain, or adrenal glands. Pleural tumors are usually found only on one side of the lungs.

[edit] Diagnosis

CT scan of a patient with mesothelioma, coronal section (the section follows the plane the divides the body in a front and a back half). The mesothelioma is indicated by yellow arrows, the central pleural effusion (fluid collection) is marked with a yellow star. Red numbers: (1) right lung, (2) spine, (3) left lung, (4) ribs, (5) descending part of the aorta, (6) spleen, (7) left kidney, (8) right kidney, (9) liver.

Diagnosing mesothelioma is often difficult, because the symptoms are similar to those of a number of other conditions. Diagnosis begins with a review of the patient's medical history. A history of exposure to asbestos may increase clinical suspicion for mesothelioma. A physical examination is performed, followed by chest X-ray and often lung function tests. The X-ray may reveal pleural thickening commonly seen after asbestos exposure and increases suspicion of mesothelioma. A CT (or CAT) scan or an MRI is usually performed. If a large amount of fluid is present, abnormal cells may be detected by cytology if this fluid is aspirated with a syringe. For pleural fluid this is done by a pleural tap or chest drain, in ascites with an paracentesis or ascitic drain and in a pericardial effusion with pericardiocentesis. While absence of malignant cells on cytology does not completely exclude mesothelioma, it makes it much more unlikely, especially if an alternative diagnosis can be made (e.g. tuberculosis, heart failure).

If cytology is positive or a plaque is regarded as suspicious, a biopsy is needed to confirm a diagnosis of mesothelioma. A doctor removes a sample of tissue for examination under a microscope by a pathologist. A biopsy may be done in different ways, depending on where the abnormal area is located. If the cancer is in the chest, the doctor may perform a thoracoscopy. In this procedure, the doctor makes a small cut through the chest wall and puts a thin, lighted tube called a thoracoscope into the chest between two ribs. Thoracoscopy allows the doctor to look inside the chest and obtain tissue samples.

If the cancer is in the abdomen, the doctor may perform a laparoscopy. To obtain tissue for examination, the doctor makes a small opening in the abdomen and inserts a special instrument into the abdominal cavity. If these procedures do not yield enough tissue, more extensive diagnostic surgery may be necessary.

Risk factors

Working with asbestos is the major risk factor for mesothelioma. Mesothelioma is now known to occur in those who are genetically pre-disposed to it. A history of asbestos exposure exists in almost all cases. However, mesothelioma has been reported in some individuals without any known exposure to asbestos. In rare cases, mesothelioma has also been associated with irradiation, intrapleural thorium dioxide (Thorotrast), and inhalation of other fibrous silicates, such as erionite.

Asbestos is the name of a group of minerals that occur naturally as masses of strong, flexible fibers that can be separated into thin threads and woven. Asbestos has been widely used in many industrial products, including cement, brake linings, roof shingles, flooring products, textiles, and insulation. If tiny asbestos particles float in the air, especially during the manufacturing process, they may be inhaled or swallowed, and can cause serious health problems. In addition to mesothelioma, exposure to asbestos increases the risk of lung cancer, asbestosis (a noncancerous, chronic lung ailment), and other cancers, such as those of the larynx and kidney.

The combination of smoking and asbestos exposure significantly increases a person's risk of developing cancer of the airways (lung cancer, bronchial carcinoma). The Kent brand of cigarettes used asbestos in its filters for the first few years of production in the 1950s and some cases of mesothelioma have resulted. Smoking modern cigarettes does not appear to increase the risk of mesothelioma.

Some studies suggest that simian virus 40 (SV40) may act as a cofactor in the development of mesothelioma.

Treatment

Treatment of malignant mesothelioma using conventional therapies has not proved successful and patients have a median survival time of 6 - 12 months after presentation^{[citation needed]}. The clinical behaviour of the malignancy is affected by several factors including the continuous mesothelial surface of the pleural cavity which favours local metastasis via exfoliated cells, invasion to underlying tissue and other organs within the pleural cavity, and the extremely long latency period between asbestos exposure and development of the disease.

Surgery

Surgery, either by itself or used in combination with pre- and post-operative adjuvant therapies, has proved disappointing. A pleurectomy/decortication is the most common surgery, in which the lining of the chest is removed. Less common is an extrapleural pneumonectomy (EPP), in which the lung, lining of the inside of the chest, the hemi-diaphragm and the pericardium are removed. It is not possible to remove the entire mesothelium without killing the patient.

BRAIN TUMOR

2008-07-01T09:50:00.000-07:00

Gliomas are primary tumors that originate in brain parenchyma. Symptoms and diagnosis are similar to those of other brain tumors. Treatment involves surgical excision, radiation therapy, and, for some tumors, chemotherapy. Excision rarely cures.
Meningiomas are benign tumors of the meninges that can compress adjacent brain tissue. Symptoms depend on the tumor's location. Diagnosis is by MRI with contrast agent. Treatment may include excision, stereotactic radiosurgery, and sometimes radiation therapy.
Pineal region tumors are usually germ cell tumors (eg, germinoma, choriocarcinoma, yolk-sac tumor, teratoma). Other primary pineal tumors include pineocytoma and the rare malignant pineoblastoma.
Most pituitary tumors are adenomas. Symptoms include headache and endocrinopathies; endocrinopathies result when the tumor produces hormones or destroys hormone-producing tissue. Diagnosis is by MRI. Treatment includes surgery or radiation therapy and correction of any endocrinopathy.
Primary brain lymphomas originate in neural tissue and are usually B-cell tumors. Diagnosis requires neuroimaging and sometimes CSF analysis, Epstein-Barr titers, or brain biopsy. Treatment includes corticosteroids, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
Spinal cord tumors may develop within the spinal cord parenchyma, directly destroying tissue, or outside the cord parenchyma, often compressing the cord or nerve roots. Symptoms include progressive back pain and neurologic deficits referable to the spinal cord or spinal nerve roots. Diagnosis is by MRI. Treatment may include corticosteroids, surgical excision, and radiation therapy.

Source(s):

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/brain-t...
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/...
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/...
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_tumor
http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec16/ch225/ch...

NANOTECHNOLOGY

2008-06-21T02:16:00.000-07:00

Nanotechnology refers to a field of applied science and technology whose theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale, generally 100 nanometers or smaller, and the fabrication of devices or materials that lie within that size range.

[hide]

[edit] Overview

Nanotechnology is a highly multidisciplinary field, drawing from fields such as applied physics, materials science, interface and colloid science, device physics, supramolecular chemistry (which refers to the area of chemistry that focuses on the noncovalent bonding interactions of molecules), self-replicating machines and robotics, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, biological engineering, and electrical engineering. Grouping of the sciences under the umbrella of "nanotechnology" has been questioned on the basis that there is little actual boundary-crossing between the sciences that operate on the nano-scale. Instrumentation is the only area of technology common to all disciplines; on the contrary, for example pharmaceutical and semiconductor industries do not "talk with each other". Corporations that call their products "nanotechnology" typically market them only to a certain industrial cluster.^[1]

Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control. The impetus for nanotechnology comes from a renewed interest in Interface and Colloid Science, coupled with a new generation of analytical tools such as the atomic force microscope (AFM), and the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). Combined with refined processes such as electron beam lithography and molecular beam epitaxy, these instruments allow the deliberate manipulation of nanostructures, and lead to the observation of novel phenomena.

Examples of nanotechnology are the manufacture of polymers based on molecular structure, and the design of computer chip layouts based on surface science. Despite the promise of nanotechnologies such as quantum dots and nanotubes, real commercial applications have mainly used the advantages of colloidal nanoparticles in bulk form, such as suntan lotion, cosmetics, protective coatings, drug delivery,^[2] and stain resistant clothing.

[edit] Origins

Buckminsterfullerene C₆₀, also known as the buckyball, is the simplest of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. Members of the fullerene family are a major subject of research falling under the nanotechnology umbrella.

Main article: History of nanotechnology

The first use of the concepts in 'nano-technology' (but predating use of that name) was in "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important, surface tension and Van der Waals attraction would become more important, etc. This basic idea appears plausible, and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of end products. The term "nanotechnology" was defined by Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper^[3] as follows: "'Nano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule." In the 1980s the basic idea of this definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and the books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology (1986) and Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation,^[4] and so the term acquired its current sense. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology is considered the first book on the topic of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with two major developments; the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1986 and carbon nanotubes a few years later. In another development, the synthesis and properties of semiconductor nanocrystals was studied; This led to a fast increasing number of metal oxide nanoparticles of quantum dots. The atomic force microscope was invented six years after the STM was invented. In 2000, the United States National Nanotechnology Initiative was founded to coordinate Federal nanotechnology research and development.nano tecnology is the study of unicorns

[edit] Fundamental concepts

One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10^-9 of a meter. To put that scale in context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.^[5] Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount a man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.^[5]

Typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12-0.15 nm, and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular lifeforms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length.

[edit] Larger to smaller: a materials perspective

Image of reconstruction on a clean Au(100) surface, as visualized using scanning tunneling microscopy. The positions of the individual atoms composing the surface are visible.

Main article: Nanomaterials

A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes dominant when the nanometer size range is reached. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Novel mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.

Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances become transparent (copper); inert materials become catalysts (platinum); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold); insulators become conductors (silicon). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.

[edit] Simple to complex: a molecular perspective

Main article: Molecular self-assembly

Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to produce a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.

These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific conformation or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson-Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.

Such bottom-up approaches should be able to produce devices in parallel and much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most notably Watson-Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer novel constructs in addition to natural ones.

[edit] Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view

Main article: Molecular nanotechnology

Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, is a term given to the concept of engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. It is especially associated with the concept of a molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.

When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler (who at the time was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on molecular machine systems. The premise was that molecular-scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is known that sophisticated, stochastically optimised biological machines can be produced..

It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers^[6] have proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification (PNAS-1981). The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book Nanosystems.

But Drexler's analysis is very qualitative and does not address very pressing issues, such as the "fat fingers" and "Sticky fingers" problems. In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as all one has to position atoms are other atoms of comparable size and stickyness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno,^[7] is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Yet another view, put forward by the late Richard Smalley, is that mechanosynthesis is impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules.

This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.^[8] Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are Dr. Alex Zettl and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley. They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.

An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at Cornell University in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.

[edit] Current research

Graphical representation of a rotaxane, useful as a molecular switch.

This device transfers energy from nano-thin layers of quantum wells to nanocrystals above them, causing the nanocrystals to emit visible light.^[9]

[edit] Nanomaterials

This includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.^[10]

Interface and Colloid Science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods.
Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see Nanomedicine.

[edit] Bottom-up approaches

These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.

DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson-Crick basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids.
Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis also aim at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. bis-peptides^[11]).
More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.

[edit] Top-down approaches

These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.

Many technologies descended from conventional solid-state silicon methods for fabricating microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than 100 nm, falling under the definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description,^[12] as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. Peter Grünberg and Albert Fert received the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of Giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics in 2007.^[13]

Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known as nanoelectromechanical systems or NEMS, which are related to microelectromechanical systems or MEMS.
Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a process called dip pen nanolithography. This fits into the larger subfield of nanolithography.

[edit] Functional approaches

These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled.

Molecular electronics seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.^[14] For an example see rotaxane.
Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create synthetic molecular motors, such as in a so-called nanocar.

[edit] Speculative

These subfields seek to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to propose an agenda along which inquiry might progress. These often take a big-picture view of nanotechnology, with more emphasis on its societal implications than the details of how such inventions could actually be created.

Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways. This is more theoretical than the other subfields and is beyond current capabilities.
Nanorobotics centers on self-sufficient machines of some functionality operating at the nanoscale. There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine^[15]^[16]^[17], but it may not be easy to do such a thing because of several drawbacks of such devices.^[18] Nevertheless, progress on innovative materials and methodologies has been demonstrated with some patents granted about new nanomanufacturing devices for future commercial applications, which also progressively helps in the development towards nanorobots with the use of embedded nanobioelectronics concept.^[19]^[20]
Programmable matter based on artificial atoms seeks to design materials whose properties can be easily and reversibly externally controlled.
Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words picotechnology and femtotechnology have been coined in analogy to it, although these are only used rarely and informally.

[edit] Tools and techniques

Typical AFM setup. A microfabricated cantilever with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample surface, much like in a phonograph but on a much smaller scale. A laser beam reflects off the backside of the cantilever into a set of photodetectors, allowing the deflection to be measured and assembled into an image of the surface.

The first observations and size measurements of nano-particles were made during the first decade of the 20th century. They are mostly associated with the name of Zsigmondy who made detailed studies of gold sols and other nanomaterials with sizes down to 10 nm and less. He published a book in 1914.^[21] He used ultramicroscope that employs a dark field method for seeing particles with sizes much less than light wavelength.

There are traditional techniques developed during 20th century in Interface and Colloid Science for characterizing nanomaterials. These are widely used for first generation passive nanomaterials specified in the next section.

These methods include several different techniques for characterizing particle size distribution. This characterization is imperative because many materials that are expected to be nano-sized are actually aggregated in solutions. Some of methods are based on light scattering. Other apply ultrasound, such as ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy for testing concentrated nano-dispersions and microemulsions.^[22]

There is also a group of traditional techniques for characterizing surface charge or zeta potential of nano-particles in solutions. These information is required for proper system stabilzation, preventing its aggregation or flocculation. These methods include microelectrophoresis, electrophoretic light scattering and electroacoustics. The last one, for instance colloid vibration current method is suitable for characterizing concentrated systems.

Next group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers. However, all of these techniques preceded the nanotech era, and are extensions in the development of scientific advancements rather than techniques which were devised with the sole purpose of creating nanotechnology and which were results of nanotechnology research.

There are several important modern developments. The atomic force microscope (AFM) and the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are other types of scanning probe microscopy, all flowing from the ideas of the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, that made it possible to see structures at the nanoscale. The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate nanostructures (a process called positional assembly). Feature-oriented scanning-positioning methodology suggested by Rostislav Lapshin appears to be a promising way to implement these nanomanipulations in automatic mode. However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope. Various techniques of nanolithography such as dip pen nanolithography, electron beam lithography or nanoimprint lithography were also developed. Lithography is a top-down fabrication technique where a bulk material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern.

The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built piece by piece in stages, much as manufactured items are made. Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning-positioning approach, atoms can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques. At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very suitable for laboratory experimentation.

In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule. These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly. Another variation of the bottom-up approach is molecular beam epitaxy or MBE. Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur. Alfred Y. Cho, and Art C. Gossard developed and implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. Samples made by MBE were key to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect for which the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically-precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures. Important for research on semiconductors, MBE is also widely used to make samples and devices for the newly emerging field of spintronics.

Newer techniques such as Dual Polarisation Interferometry are enabling scientists to measure quantitatively the molecular interactions that take place at the nano-scale.

[edit] Applications

Main article: List of nanotechnology applications

As of April 24, 2008 The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies claims that over 609 nanotech products exist, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3-4 per week.^[23] The project lists all of the products in a database. Most applications are limited to the use of "first generation" passive nanomaterials which includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics and some food products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko tape; silver in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants and household appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.^[24]

The National Science Foundation (a major source of funding for nanotechnology in the United States) funded researcher David Berube to study the field of nanotechnology. His findings are published in the monograph “Nano-Hype: The Truth Behind the Nanotechnology Buzz". This published study (with a foreword by Mihail Roco, Senior Advisor for Nanotechnology at the National Science Foundation) concludes that much of what is sold as “nanotechnology” is in fact a recasting of straightforward materials science, which is leading to a “nanotech industry built solely on selling nanotubes, nanowires, and the like” which will “end up with a few suppliers selling low margin products in huge volumes." Further applications which require actual manipulation or arrangement of nanoscale components await further research. Though technologies branded with the term 'nano' are sometimes little related to and fall far short of the most ambitious and transformative technological goals of the sort in molecular manufacturing proposals, the term still connotes such ideas. Thus there may be a danger that a "nano bubble" will form, or is forming already, from the use of the term by scientists and entrepreneurs to garner funding, regardless of interest in the transformative possibilities of more ambitious and far-sighted work.

Platinum nanoparticles are now being considered in the next generation of automotive catalytic converters because the very high surface area of nanoparticles could reduce the amount of platinum required.^[25] However, some concerns have been raised due to experiments demonstrating that they will spontaneously combust if methane is mixed with the ambient air.^[26] Ongoing research at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique(CNRS) in France may resolve their true usefulness for catalytic applications.^[27] Nanofiltration may come to be an important application, although future research must be careful to investigate possible toxicity.^[28]

In 1999, the ultimate CMOS transistor developed at the Laboratory for Electronics and Information Technology in Grenoble, France, tested the limits of the principles of the MOSFET transistor with a diameter of 18 nm (approximately 70 atoms placed side by side). This was almost one tenth the size of the smallest industrial transistor in 2003 (130 nm in 2003, 90 nm in 2004, 65 nm in 2005 and 45 nm in 2007). It enabled the theoretical integration of seven billion junctions on a €1 coin. However, the CMOS transistor, which was created in 1999, was not a simple research experiment to study how CMOS technology functions, but rather a demonstration of how this technology functions now that we ourselves are getting ever closer to working on a molecular scale. Today it would be impossible to master the coordinated assembly of a large number of these transistors on a circuit and it would also be impossible to create this on an industrial level.^[29]

[edit] Cancer

The small size of nanoparticles endows them with properties that can be very useful in oncology, particularly in imaging. Quantum dots (nanoparticles with quantum confinement properties, such as size-tunable light emission), when used in conjunction with MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), can produce exceptional images of tumor sites. These nanoparticles are much brighter than organic dyes and only need one light source for excitation. This means that the use of fluorescent quantum dots could produce a higher contrast image and at a lower cost than today's organic dyes used as contrast media.

Another nanoproperty, high surface area to volume ratio, allows many functional groups to be attached to a nanoparticle, which can seek out and bind to certain tumor cells. Additionally, the small size of nanoparticles (10 to 100 nanometers), allows them to preferentially accumulate at tumor sites (because tumors lack an effective lymphatic drainage system). A very exciting research question is how to make these imaging nanoparticles do more things for cancer. For instance, is it possible to manufacture multifunctional nanoparticles that would detect, image, and then proceed to treat a tumor? This question is under vigorous investigation; the answer to which could shape the future of cancer treatment.^[30]A promising new cancer treatment that may one day replace radiation and chemotherapy is edging closer to human trials. Kanzius RF therapy attaches microscopic nanoparticles to cancer cells and then "cooks" tumors inside the body with radio waves that heat only the nanoparticles and the adjacent (cancerous) cells.

[edit] Regulation

It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article. (Discuss)

The nanotechnology label is used on an increasing number of commercially available products – from socks and trousers to tennis racquets and cleaning cloths. The emergence of such nanotechnologies, and their accompanying industries, have been met by calls for increased community participation and effective regulatory arrangements.^[31] Yet despite such calls, there is currently no comprehensive regulation to oversee research and the commercial application of nanotechnologies.^[32] Nor is there any comprehensive labeling for products that contain nano-particles, or that are derived from nano-processes.

Limited nanotechnology labeling and regulation are expected to exacerbate the potential human and environmental health and safety issues associated with nanotechnology.^[33] The development of comprehensive regulation of nanotechnology will be vital to ensure that the potential risks associated with the research and commercial application of nanotechnology do not overshadow its supposed benefits.^[34] Regulation will also be required to meet community expectations about responsible development of nanotechnology, as well as ensuring that public interests are included in shaping the development of nanotechnology.^[35]

[edit] Definitions: ‘Newness’, Size and Mass

[edit] ’Newness’

The question of whether nanotechnology represents something ‘new’ must be answered to decide how best nanotechnology should be regulated. Given its novelty, there is a strong argument that nanotechnology should be defined as ‘new’, and as such that it be regulated via comprehensive nanotechnology specific regulatory regimes.^[36] The Royal Society^[37] recommended that the UK government assess chemicals in the form of nanoparticles or nanotubes as new substances. Subsequent to this, in 2007 a coalition of over forty groups called for nanomaterials to be classified as new substances, and regulated as such.

Despite these recommendations, chemicals comprising nanoparticles that have previously been subject to assessment and regulation may be exempt from regulation, regardless of the potential for different risks and impacts. In contrast, nanomaterials are often recognised as ‘new’ from the perspective of intellectual property rights (IPRs), and as such are commercially protected via patenting laws. There is an inconsistency here; nanomaterials are legally defined as ‘new’ via IPRs, however they are not recognized as such from the perspective of health and safety regulations.

[edit] Size

Regulation of nanotechnology will require a definition of the size, in which particles and processes are recognized as operating at the nano-scale. The size-defining characteristic of nanotechnology is the subject of significant debate, and varies to include particles and materials in the scale of at least 100 to 300 nanometers (nm). Friends of the Earth Australia recommend defining nanoparticles up to 300 nanometers (nm) in size. They argue that “particles up to a few hundred nanometers in size share many of the novel biological behaviours of nanoparticles, including novel toxicity risks”, and that “nanomaterials up to approximately 300nm in size can be taken up by individual cells”. The UK Soil Association define nanotechnology to include manufactured nanoparticles where the mean particle size is 200 nm or smaller. The U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative define nanotechnology as “the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nm.

[edit] Mass Thresholds

Regulatory frameworks for chemicals tend to be triggered by mass thresholds.^[38] This is certainly the case for the management of toxic chemicals in Australia through the National pollutant inventory. However, in the case of nanotechnology, nanoparticle applications are unlikely to exceed these thresholds (tonnes/kilograms) due to the size and weight of nanoparticles. As such, the Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholars question the usefulness of regulating nanotechnologies on the basis of their size/weight alone. They argue, for example, that the toxicity of nano-participles is more related to surface area than weight, and that emerging regulations should also take account of such factors.

[edit] Assessment

There is significant debate related to the circumstances in which it is necessary and appropriate to assess new substances prior to their release into the market, community and environment. The 2004 report by the UK Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineers^[39] noted that existing UK regulations did not require additional testing when existing substances were produced in nanoparticulate form. The Royal Society, however, recommended that such regulations were revised so that “chemicals produced in the form of nanoparticles and nanotubes be treated as new chemicals under these regulatory frameworks” (p.xi).

[edit] Managing Risks: Human and Environmental Health and Safety

[edit] Human Health and Safety

Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have occurred alongside a growing debate related to the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology. The Royal Society identifies the potential for nanoparticles to penetrate the skin, and recommend that the use of nanoparticles in cosmetics be conditional upon a favorable assessment by the relevant European Commission safety advisory committee. Andrew Maynard^[40] also reports that ‘certain nanoparticles may move easily into sensitive lung tissues after inhalation, and cause damage that can lead to chronic breathing problems’.

Carbon nanotubes – characterized by their lightweight and incredible strength – are frequently likened to asbestos, due to their needle like fiber shape. In a recent study that introduced carbon nanotubes into the abdominal cavity of mice, results demonstrated that long thin carbon nanotubes showed the same effects as long thing asbestos fibers, raising concerns that exposure to carbon nanotubes may lead to mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the lungs caused by exposure to asbestos).^[41]

Given the risks identified with carbon nanotubes, effective and rigorous regulation will be required to determine if, and under what circumstances, carbon nanotubes are manufactured, as well as ensuring their safe handling and disposal.^[42]

The Woodrow Wilson Centre’s Project on Emerging Technologies conclude that there is insufficient funding for human health and safety research, and as a result there is currently limited understanding of the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology. While the US National Nanotechnology Initiative reports that around four percent (about $40 million) is dedicated to risk related research and development, the Woodrow Wilson Centre estimate that only around $11 million is actually directed towards risk related research. They argued in 2007 that it would be necessary to increase funding to a minimum of $50 million in the following two years so as to fill the gaps in knowledge in these areas.^[43]

The potential for workplace exposure was highlighted by the 2004 Royal Society report,^[44] which recommended a review of existing regulations to assess and control workplace exposure to nanoparticles and nanotubes. The report expressed particular concern for the inhalation of large quantities of nanoparticles by workers involved in the manufacturing process.

Stakeholders concerned by the lack of a regulatory framework to assess and control risks associated with the release of nanoparticles and nanotubes have drawn parallels with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (‘mad cow’s disease), thalidomide, genetically modified food),^[45] nuclear energy, reproductive technologies, biotechnology, and asbestosis. In light of such concerns, the Canadian based ETC Group have called for a moratorium on nano-related research until comprehensive regulatory frameworks are developed that will ensure workplace safety.

[edit] Environmental Health and Safety

Environmental assessment is justified as nanoparticles present novel (new) environmental impacts. Scrinis^[46] raises concerns about nano-pollution, and argues that it is not currently possible to “precisely predict or control the ecological impacts of the release of these nano-products into the environment.” Ecotoxicological impacts of nanoparticles and the potential for bioaccumulation in plants and microorganisms remain under-researched. The capacity for nanoparticles to function as a transport mechanism also raises concern about the transport of heavy metals and other environmental contaminants. A May 2007 Report to the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs noted concerns about the toxicological impacts of nanoparticles in relation to both hazard and exposure. The report recommended comprehensive toxicological testing and independent performance tests of fuel additives. Of the US$710 million spent in 2002 by the U.S. government on nanotechnology research, only $500,000 was spent on environmental impact assessments. Risks identified by Uskokovic (2007)^[47] include: self-replicating nanobots aggressively or through slowly rising supremacy wiping out the whole biosphere; further destabilising the already endangered diversity of the biosphere or extending the existing gap between the rich and poor.

In early 2008, The UK's largest organic certifier, the Soil Association, announced that its organic standard would exclude nanotechnology, recognizing the associated human and environmental health and safety risks. It is likely that other organic certifiers will also follow suite. The Soil Association was also the first to declare organic standards free from genetic engineering.

[edit] Life Cycle Responsibility

The Royal Society report^[48] identified a risk of nanoparticles or nanotubes being released during disposal, destruction and recycling, and recommended that “manufacturers of products that fall under extended producer responsibility regimes such as end-of-life regulations publish procedures outlining how these materials will be managed to minimize possible human and environmental exposure” (p.xiii). Reflecting the challenges for ensuring responsible life cycle regulation, the Institute for Food and Agricultural Standards has proposed standards for nanotechnology research and development should be integrated across consumer, worker and environmental standards. They also propose that NGOs and other citizen groups play a meaningful role in the development of these standards.

[edit] Democratic Governance

It is now widely recognized that government has a responsibility to provide opportunities for the public to be involved in the development of new forms of science and technology).^[49] Community engagement can be achieved through various means or mechanisms. Rowe et al. (2005)^[50] identify traditional approaches such as referenda, consultation documents, and advisory committees that include community members and other stakeholders. Other conventional approaches include public meetings and “closed” dialog with stakeholders. More contemporary engagement processes that have been employed to include community members in decisions about nanotechnology include citizens' juries and consensus conferences.

The Better Regulation Task Force's 2003 report^[51] recommended that the UK Government: 1. enable, through an informed debate, the public to consider the risks for themselves, and help them to make their own decisions by providing suitable information; 2. be open about how it makes decisions, and acknowledge where there are uncertainties; 3. communicate with, and involve as far as possible, the public in the decision making process; 4. ensure it develops two-way communication channels; and 5. take a strong lead over the handling of any risk issues, particularly information provision and policy implementation.

These recommendations were accepted in principle by the UK Government. Noting that there was “no obvious focus for an informed public debate of the type suggested by the Task Force”, the UK government's response was to accept the recommendations. By contrast, Leach and Scoones (2006, p. 45)^[52] argue that since that “most debates about science and technology options involve uncertainty, and often ignorance, public debate about regulatory regimes is essential.”

The Royal Society's 2004 report^[53] identified two distinct governance issues:

the “role and behaviour of institutions” and their ability to “minimise unintended consequences” through adequate regulation and
the extent to which the public can trust and play a role in determining the trajectories that nanotechnologies may follow as they develop.

Community education, engagement and consultation tend to occur “downstream”: once there is at least a moderate level of awareness, and often during the process of disseminating and adapting technologies. “Upstream” engagement, by contrast, occurs much earlier in the innovation cycle and involves: “dialogue and debate about future technology options and pathways, bringing the often expert-led approaches to horizon scanning, technology foresight and scenario planning to involve a wider range of perspectives and inputs.”^[54] Daniel Sarewitz Director of Arizona State University’s Consortium on Science, Policy and Outcomes, argues that “by the time new devices reach the stage of commercialization and regulation, it is usually too late to alter them to correct problems.”^[55]

[edit] New Regulatory Framework or Adapt Existing Arrangements

There is significant debate about who is responsible for the regulation of nanotechnology. While some non-nanotechnology specific regulatory agencies currently cover some products and processes (to varying degrees) – by “bolting on” nanotechnology to existing regulations – there are clear gaps in these regimes.^[56] This enables some nanotechnology applications to literally “slip through the cracks” without being covered by any regulations. An example of this has occurred in the US, and involves nanoparticles of titanium dioxide for use in sunscreen. In this case, the Federal Drug Administration reviewed the immediate health effects of exposure to nanoparticles of titanium dioxide for consumers. However, they did not review its impacts for aquatic ecosystems when the sunscreen rubs off, and nor did the EPA, or any other agency.^[57] Such gaps in regulation are likely to continue alongside the development and commercialization of increasingly complex second and third generation nanotechnologies.

Some NGOs, including Friends of the Earth, are calling for the formation of a separate nanotechnology specific regulatory framework for the regulation of nanotechnology. In Australia, Friends of the Earth propose the establishment of a Nanotechnology Regulatory Coordination Agency, overseen by a Foresight and Technology Assessment Board. The advantage of this arrangement is that it could ensure a centralized body of experts that are able to provide oversight across the range of nano-products and sectors. It is also argued (Bowman and Hodge 2006^[58]) that a centralized regulatory approach would simplyfing the regulatory environment, thereby supporting industry innovation. A National Nanotechnology Regulator could coordinate existing regulations related to nanotechnology (including intellectual property, civil liberties, product safety, occupation health and safety, environmental and international law). Regulatory mechanisms could vary from "hard law at one extreme through licensing and codes of practice to ‘soft’ self-regulation and negotiation in order to influence behaviour" (Bowman and Hodge 2006^[59], p. 1068).

Rather than adopt a new nano-specific regulatory framework, however, the United States’ Food and Drug Administration (FDA) convenes an ‘interest group’ each quarter with representatives of FDA centers that have responsibility for assessment and regulation of different substances and products. This interest group ensures coordination and communication.^[60]

In 2004, the United Kingdom Government commissioned the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering^[61] to provide independent advice concerning areas where regulation should be considered. The formation of national nanotechnology regulatory bodies may also assist in establishing global regulatory frameworks.^[62]

[edit] Self-regulation

The Self-policing wiki notes that self-regulation attempts may well fail, due to the inherent conflict of interest in asking any organization to police itself. If the public becomes aware of this failure, an external, independent organization is often given the duty of policing them, sometimes with highly punitive measures taken against the organization. The Food and Drug Administration note that they only regulate on the basis of voluntary claims made by the product manufacturer. If no claims are made by a manufacturer, then the FDA may be unaware of nanotechnology being employed.^[63]

[edit] International Law

There is no international regulation of nanoproducts or the underlying nanotechnology.^[64] Nor are there any internationally agreed definitions or terminology for nanotechnology, no internationally agreed protocols for toxicity testing of nanoparticles, and no standardized protocols for evaluating the environmental impacts of nanoparticles.^[65]

It is likely that products that are produced using nanotechnologies will enter international trade. For this reason, it is argued that it will be necessary to harmonize nanotechnology standards across national borders. There is concern that some countries, most notably developing countries, will be excluded from international standards negotiations. The Institute for Food and Agricultural Standards note that “developing countries should have a say in international nanotechnology standards development, even if they lack capacity to enforce the standards". (p. 14).^[66]

Concerns about monopolies and concentrated control and ownership of new nanotechnologies were raised in community workshops in Australia in 2004.^[67]

[edit] Precautionary approach

The Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering (2004)^[68] recommended that existing regulation be modified to support a precautionary basis because “the toxicity of chemicals in the form of free nanoparticles and nanotubes cannot be predicted from their toxicity in a larger form and… in some cases they will be more toxic than the same mass of the same chemical in larger form.”

In January 2008, a coalition of over 40 civil society groups endorsed a statement of principles^[69] calling for precautionary action related to nanotechnology.

[edit] Social Justice and Civil Liberties

Concerns are frequently raised that the claimed benefits of nanotechnology will not be evenly distributed, and that any benefits (including technical and/or economic) associated with nanotechnology will only reach affluent nations.^[70] The majority of nanotechnology research and development - and patents for nanomaterials and products - is concentrated in developed countries (including the United States, Japan, Germany, Canada and France). In addition, most patents related to nanotechnology are concentrated amongst few multinational corporations, including IBM, Micron Technologies, Advanced Micro Devices and Intel.^[71] It is unlikely that developing countries will have access to the infrastructure, funding and human resources required to support nanotechnology research and development. This is likely to exacerbate such inequalities.

The agriculture and food industries demonstrate the concentration of nanotechnology related patents. Patents over seeds, plant material, animal and other agri-food techniques are already concentrated amongst a few corporations. This is anticipated to increase the cost of farming, by increasing farmers' input dependence. This is likely to marginalize poorer farmers, including those living in developing countries.^[72]

Producers in developing countries will also be disadvantaged by the replacement of natural products (including rubber, cotton, coffee and tea) by developments in nanotechnology. These natural products are important export crops for developing countries, and many farmers' livelihoods depend on them. Their substitution with industrial nano products will negatively impact the economies of developing countries, that have traditionally relied on these export crops.^[73]

It is proposed that nanotechnology can only be effective in alleviating poverty and aid development "when adapted to social, cultural and local institutional contexts, and chosen and designed with the active participation by citizens right from the commencement point" (Invernizzi et al 2008, p. 132).^[74]

[edit] Health and environmental concerns

Main article: Nanotoxicology

Some of the recently developed nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences. Researchers have discovered that silver nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odor are being released in the wash with possible negative consequences.^[75] Silver nanoparticles, which are bacteriostatic, may then destroy beneficial bacteria which are important for breaking down organic matter in waste treatment plants or farms.^[76]

A study at the University of Rochester found that when rats breathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in the brain and lungs, which lead to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation and stress response.^[77]

A major study published more recently in Nature nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the “nanotechnology revolution” – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities. Anthony Seaton of the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland, who contributed to the article on carbon nanotubes said "We know that some of them probably have the potential to cause mesothelioma. So those sorts of materials need to be handled very carefully." ^[78]. In the absence of specific nano-regulation forthcoming from governments, Paull and Lyons (2008) have called for an exclusion of engineered nanoparticles from organic food.^[79]

[edit] Implications

Main article: Implications of nanotechnology

Due to the far-ranging claims that have been made about potential applications of nanotechnology, a number of serious concerns have been raised about what effects these will have on our society if realized, and what action if any is appropriate to mitigate these risks.

One area of concern is the effect that industrial-scale manufacturing and use of nanomaterials would have on human health and the environment, as suggested by nanotoxicology research. Groups such as the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology have advocated that nanotechnology should be specially regulated by governments for these reasons. Others counter that overregulation would stifle scientific research and the development of innovations which could greatly benefit mankind.

Other experts, including director of the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies David Rejeski, have testified^[80] that successful commercialization depends on adequate oversight, risk research strategy, and public engagement. More recently local municipalities have passed (Berkeley, CA) or are considering (Cambridge, MA) - ordinances requiring nanomaterial manufacturers to disclose the known risks of their products.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is conducting research on how nanoparticles interact with the body’s systems and how workers might be exposed to nano-sized particles in the manufacturing or industrial use of nanomaterials. NIOSH offers interim guidelines for working with nanomaterials consistent with the best scientific knowledge. ^[81]

Longer-term concerns center on the implications that new technologies will have for society at large, and whether these could possibly lead to either a post scarcity economy, or alternatively exacerbate the wealth gap between developed and developing nations. The effects of nanotechnology on the society as a whole, on human health and the environment, on trade, on security, on food systems and even on the definition of "human", have not been characterized or politicized.

Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Cancer Treatment: Questions and Answers

2008-06-21T02:04:00.000-07:00

Key Points

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine (see Question 1).
It is important that the same scientific evaluation that is used to assess conventional approaches be used to evaluate CAM therapies (see Question 3).
The National Cancer Institute and the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine are sponsoring or cosponsoring various clinical trials (research studies) to study CAM therapies for cancer (see Question 5).
It is important that patients inform all of their health care providers about any therapies they are currently using or considering. This is to help ensure a safe and coordinated course of care (see Question 7).

What is complementary and alternative medicine?

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), as defined by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), is a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine. Complementary medicine is used together with conventional medicine. Alternative medicine is used in place of conventional medicine. Conventional medicine is medicine as practiced by holders of M.D. (medical doctor) or D.O. (doctor of osteopathy) degrees and by their allied health professionals, such as physical therapists, psychologists, and registered nurses. Other terms for conventional medicine include allopathy; Western, mainstream, orthodox, and regular medicine; and biomedicine. Some conventional medical practitioners are also practitioners of CAM.

This fact sheet answers some frequently asked questions about the use of CAM therapies among the general public, and about how CAM approaches are evaluated, and suggests sources for further information.

Are complementary and alternative therapies widely used?

The results of studies of CAM use have been inconsistent. One large-scale study published in the November 11, 1998, issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association found that CAM use among the general public increased from 33.8 percent in 1990 to 42.1 percent in 1997. However, an analysis of data from the 1999 National Health Interview Survey indicated that only 28.9 percent of U.S. adults (age 18 and over) had used at least one CAM therapy in the past year. These results were published in the journal Medical Care in 2002.

Several surveys of CAM use by cancer patients have been conducted with small numbers of patients. One study published in the February 2000 issue of the journal Cancer reported that 37 percent of 46 patients with prostate cancer used one or more CAM therapies as part of their cancer treatment. These therapies included herbal remedies, vitamins, and special diets.

A larger study of CAM use in patients with different types of cancer was published in the July 2000 issue of the Journal of Clinical Oncology. This study found that 69 percent of 453 cancer patients had used at least one CAM therapy as part of their cancer treatment. Additional information about CAM use among cancer patients can be found in a review article published in Seminars in Oncology in December 2002.

How are CAM approaches evaluated?

It is important that the same rigorous scientific evaluation used to assess conventional approaches be used to evaluate CAM therapies. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) and NCCAM are funding a number of clinical trials (research studies) at medical centers to evaluate CAM therapies for cancer.

Conventional approaches to cancer treatment have generally been studied for safety and effectiveness through a rigorous scientific process that includes clinical trials with large numbers of patients. Less is known about the safety and effectiveness of complementary and alternative methods. Some CAM therapies have undergone rigorous evaluation. A small number of CAM therapies originally considered to be purely alternative approaches are finding a place in cancer treatment—not as cures, but as complementary therapies that may help patients feel better and recover faster. One example is acupuncture. According to a panel of experts at a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference in November 1997, acupuncture has been found to be effective in the management of chemotherapy-associated nausea and vomiting and in controlling pain associated with surgery. In contrast, some approaches, such as the use of laetrile, have been studied and found ineffective or potentially harmful.

What is the Best Case Series Program?

The Best Case Series Program, which was started by the NCI in 1991, is one way CAM approaches that are being used in practice are being evaluated. The program is overseen by the NCI’s Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine (OCCAM). Health care professionals who offer CAM services submit their patients’ medical records and related materials to OCCAM. OCCAM conducts a critical review of the materials and develops follow-up research strategies for approaches that have therapeutic potential.

Are the NCI and NCCAM sponsoring clinical trials in complementary and alternative medicine?

The NCI and NCCAM are currently sponsoring or cosponsoring various clinical trials to study complementary and alternative treatments for cancer. Some of these trials study the effects of complementary approaches used in addition to conventional treatments, while others compare alternative therapies with conventional treatments. Current trials include the following:

Acupuncture to reduce the symptoms of advanced colorectal cancer
Combination chemotherapy plus radiation therapy with or without shark cartilage in the treatment of patients who have non-small cell lung cancer that cannot be removed by surgery
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy with laryngectomy patients (people who have had an operation to remove all or part of the larynx (voice box))
Massage therapy for cancer-related fatigue
Chemotherapy compared with pancreatic enzyme therapy plus specialized diet for the treatment of pancreatic cancer
Mistletoe extract and chemotherapy for the treatment of solid tumors

Patients who are interested in taking part in these or any clinical trials should talk with their doctor.

The NCI, NCCAM, and OCCAM clinical trials databases offer patients, family members, and health professionals information about research studies that use CAM. Clinical trials can be found by searching:

The NCI’s PDQ^® Clinical Trials Database—The PDQ Clinical Trials database can be searched at http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search using such criteria as cancer type, type of trial, geographic region, trial sponsorship, and/or drug name. This information is also available by calling the NCI’s Cancer Information Service (see below).
The NCCAM Clinical Trials Web page—Clinical trials can be searched by type of treatment or disease at http://nccam.nih.gov/clinicaltrials/ on the Internet.
The OCCAM Clinical Trials Web page—Links are provided to the NCI’s clinical trials databases at http://www.cancer.gov/cam/clinicaltrials_intro.html on the Internet.

What should patients do when using or considering complementary and alternative therapies?

Cancer patients using or considering complementary or alternative therapy should discuss this decision with their doctor or nurse, as they would any therapeutic approach. Some complementary and alternative therapies may interfere with standard treatment or may be harmful when used with conventional treatment. It is also a good idea to become informed about the therapy, including whether the results of scientific studies support the claims that are made for it. Some resources for this information are provided in Question 8.

When considering complementary and alternative therapies, what questions should patients ask their health care providers?

What benefits can be expected from this therapy?
What are the risks associated with this therapy?
Do the known benefits outweigh the risks?
What side effects can be expected?
Will the therapy interfere with conventional treatment?
Is this therapy part of a clinical trial? If so, who is sponsoring the trial?
Will the therapy be covered by health insurance?

Further information on evaluating CAM therapies and practitioners is available from NCCAM (see below).

What Federal agencies can provide more information about CAM therapies?

Patients, their families, and their health care providers can learn about CAM therapies from the following Government agencies and resources:

NCCAM is the Federal Government’s lead agency for scientific research on CAM. NCCAM is dedicated to exploring complementary and alternative healing practices in the context of rigorous science, training CAM researchers, and disseminating authoritative information to the public and professionals.

The NCCAM Clearinghouse provides information on NCCAM and on CAM, including fact sheets, other publications, and searches of Federal databases of scientific and medical literature. Publications include:

“Are You Considering Using Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM)?” (http://nccam.nih.gov/health/decisions)
“Selecting a Complementary and Alternative Medicine Practitioner” (http://nccam.nih.gov/health/practitioner)
“Consumer Financial Issues in Complementary and Alternative Medicine” (http://nccam.nih.gov/health/financial/index.htm)

The Clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners.

NCCAM Clearinghouse
Post Office Box 7923
Gaithersburg, MD 20898–7923
Toll-free in the United States: 1–888–644–6226
International: 301–519–3153
Callers with TTY equipment: 1–866–464–3615
Fax: 1–866–464–3616
Fax-on-Demand service: 1–888–644–6226
E-mail: info@nccam.nih.gov
Web site: http://nccam.nih.gov

The NCI’s Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine (OCCAM) coordinates the activities of the NCI in the area of complementary and alternative medicine. OCCAM supports CAM cancer research and provides information about cancer-related CAM to health providers and the general public via http://www.cancer.gov/cam on the Internet.

NCI’s PDQ, a comprehensive cancer information database, contains peer-reviewed summaries of the latest information about the use of CAM in the treatment of cancer. Each summary contains background information about the specific treatment, a brief history of its development, information about relevant research studies, and a glossary of scientific and medical terms. CAM summaries can be accessed at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/pdq/cam on the Internet.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates drugs and medical devices to ensure that they are safe and effective. This agency provides a number of publications for consumers, including information about dietary supplements.

Food and Drug Administration
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
Telephone: 1–888–463–6332 (toll-free)
Web site: http://www.fda.gov/
FDA’s Dietary Supplements Web page:
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/supplmnt.html

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) enforces consumer protection laws and offers publications to guide consumers. The FTC also collects information about fraudulent claims.

Consumer Response Center
Federal Trade Commission
600 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW. H–130
Washington, DC 20580
Telephone: 1–877–382–4357 (1–877–FTC–HELP ) (toll-free)
Callers with TTY equipment: 202–326–2502
Web site: http://www.ftc.gov/

CAM on PubMed^®, a database accessible via the Internet, was developed jointly by NCCAM and the NIH National Library of Medicine (NLM). It contains bibliographic citations (from 1966 to the present) for articles in scientifically based, peer-reviewed journals on CAM. These citations are a subset of the NLM’s PubMed system, which contains over 11 million journal citations from the MEDLINE^® database and additional life science journals important to health researchers, practitioners, and consumers. CAM on PubMed also displays links to many publisher Web sites, which may offer the full text of articles. To access CAM on PubMed, go to http://nccam.nih.gov/camonpubmed/ on the Internet.

MedlinePlus^®, a tool provided by the NLM, is a searchable database of health information. The Drug, Supplements, and Herbal Information section has extensive information about dietary and herbal supplements, as well as drugs. This resource is available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html on the Internet.

References

Bennett M, Lengacher C. Use of complementary therapies in a rural cancer population. Oncology Nursing Forum 1999; 26(8):1287–1294.

Cassileth BR, Chapman CC. Alternative and complementary cancer therapies. Cancer 1996; 77(6):1026–1034.

Eisenberg DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL, et al. Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990–1997. Results of a follow-up national survey. Journal of the American Medical Association 1998; 280(18):1569–1575.

Kao GD, Devine P. Use of complementary health practices by prostate carcinoma patients undergoing radiation therapy. Cancer 2000; 88(3):615–619.

Nelson W. Alternative cancer treatments. Highlights in Oncology Practice 1998; 15(4):85–93.

Ni H, Simile C, Hardy AM. Utilization of complementary and alternative medicine by United States adults: Results from the 1999 national health interview survey. Medical Care 2002; 40(4):353–358.

Richardson MA, Sanders T, Palmer JL, Greisinger A, Singletary SE. Complementary/alternative medicine use in a comprehensive cancer center and the implications for oncology. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2000; 18(13):2505–2514.

Richardson MA, Straus SE. Complementary and alternative medicine: Opportunities and challenges for cancer management and research. Seminars in Oncology 2002; 29(6):531–545.

Sparber A, Bauer L, Curt G, et al. Use of complementary medicine by adult patients participating in cancer clinical trials. Oncology Nursing Forum 2000; 27(4):623–630.

White JD. Complementary, alternative, and unproven methods of cancer treatment. In: DeVita VT Jr., Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, editors. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. Vol. 1 and 2. 6^th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001.

# # #

Related Resources

Publications (available at http://www.cancer.gov/publications)

Thinking About Complementary and Alternative Medicine—A Guide for People With Cancer

National Cancer Institute (NCI) Resources

Cancer Information Service (toll-free): Telephone: 1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237); TTY: 1–800–332–8615
Online: NCI’s Web site: http://www.cancer.gov
LiveHelp, NCI’s live online assistance:
https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/livehelp/welcome.asp

CANCER

2008-06-20T08:46:00.000-07:00

Cancer (medical term: malignant neoplasm) is a class of diseases in which a group of cells display the traits of uncontrolled growth (growth and division beyond the normal limits), invasion (intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues), and sometimes metastasis (spread to other locations in the body via lymph or blood). These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited, do not invade or metastasize. Most cancers form a tumor but some, like leukemia, do not.

Cancer may affect people at all ages, even fetuses, but risk for the more common varieties tends to increase with age.^[1] Cancer causes about 13% of all deaths.^[2] According to the American Cancer Society, 7.6 million people died from cancer in the world during 2007.^[3] Cancers can affect other animals besides humans, and plants, too.

Nearly all cancers are caused by abnormalities in the genetic material of the transformed cells. These abnormalities may be due to the effects of carcinogens, such as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents. Other cancer-promoting genetic abnormalities may be randomly acquired through errors in DNA replication, or are inherited, and thus present in all cells from birth. Complex interactions between carcinogens and the host genome may explain why only some develop cancer after exposure to a known carcinogen. New aspects of the genetics of cancer pathogenesis, such as DNA methylation, and microRNAs are increasingly being recognized as important.

Genetic abnormalities found in cancer typically affect two general classes of genes. Cancer-promoting oncogenes are often activated in cancer cells, giving those cells new properties, such as hyperactive growth and division, protection against programmed cell death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the ability to become established in diverse tissue environments. Tumor suppressor genes are often inactivated in cancer cells, resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells, such as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle, orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with protective cells of the immune system.

Cancer is usually classified according to the tissue from which the cancerous cells originate, the primary tumor, as well as the normal cell type they most resemble. These are location and histology, respectively. A definitive diagnosis usually requires the histologic examination of a tissue biopsy specimen by a pathologist, although the initial indication of malignancy can be symptoms or radiographic imaging abnormalities. Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stage. Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. As research develops, treatments are becoming more specific for different varieties of cancer. There has been significant progress in the development of targeted therapy drugs that act specifically on detectable molecular abnormalities in certain tumors, and which minimize damage to normal cells. The prognosis of cancer patients is most influenced by the type of cancer, as well as the stage, or extent of the disease. In addition, histologic grading and the presence of specific molecular markers can also be useful in establishing prognosis, as well as in determining individual treatments.


When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis (A). Cancer cells avoid apoptosis and continue to multiply in an unregulated manner (B).
DiseasesDB	28843
MedlinePlus	001289
MeSH	D009369

Mastectomy specimen containing a very large cancer of the breast (in this case, an invasive ductal carcinoma).

Colectomy specimen containing an invasive colorectal carcinoma (the crater-like, reddish, irregularly-shaped tumor).

Pneumonectomy specimen containing a lung cancer, here a Squamous cell carcinoma (the whitish tumor near the bronchi).

Nephrectomy specimen containing a Renal cell carcinoma (the yellowish, spongy-looking tumor in the lower left).

Cancer (medical term: malignant neoplasm) is a class of diseases in which a group of cells .

Nomenclature

The following closely related terms may be used to designate abnormal growths:

Tumor: originally, it meant any abnormal swelling, lump or mass. In current English, however, the word tumor has become synonymous with neoplasm, specifically solid neoplasm. Note that some neoplasms, such as leukemia, do not form tumors.
Neoplasm: the scientific term to describe an abnormal proliferation of genetically altered cells. Neoplasms can be benign or malignant:
- Malignant neoplasm or malignant tumor: synonymous with cancer.
- Benign neoplasm or benign tumor: a tumor (solid neoplasm) that stops growing by itself, does not invade other tissues and does not form metastases.
Invasive tumor is another synonym of cancer. The name refers to invasion of surrounding tissues.
Pre-malignancy, pre-cancer or non-invasive tumor: A neoplasm that is not invasive but has the potential to progress to cancer (become invasive) if left untreated. These lesions are, in order of increasing potential for cancer, atypia, dysplasia and carcinoma in situ.

The following terms can be used to describe a cancer:

Screening: a test done on healthy people to detect tumors before they become apparent. A mammogram is a screening test.
Diagnosis: the confirmation of the cancerous nature of a lump. This usually requires a biopsy or removal of the tumor by surgery, followed by examination by a pathologist.
Surgical excision: the removal of a tumor by a surgeon.
- Surgical margins: the evaluation by a pathologist of the edges of the tissue removed by the surgeon to determine if the tumor was removed completely ("negative margins") or if tumor was left behind ("positive margins").
Grade: a number (usually on a scale of 3) established by a pathologist to describe the degree of resemblance of the tumor to the surrounding benign tissue.
Stage: a number (usually on a scale of 4) established by the oncologist to describe the degree of invasion of the body by the tumor.
Recurrence: new tumors that appear a the site of the original tumor after surgery.
Metastasis: new tumors that appear far from the original tumor.
Transformation: the concept that a low-grade tumor transforms to a high-grade tumor over time. Example: Richter's transformation.
Chemotherapy: treatment with drugs.
Radiation therapy: treatment with radiations.
Adjuvant therapy: treatment, either chemotherapy or radiation therapy, given after surgery to kill the remaining cancer cells.
Prognosis: the probability of cure after the therapy. It is usually expressed as a probability of survival five years after diagnosis. Alternatively, it can be expressed as the number of years when 50% of the patients are still alive. Both numbers are derived from statistics accumulated with hundreds of similar patients to give a Kaplan-Meier curve.

Cancers are classified by the type of cell that resembles the tumor and, therefore, the tissue presumed to be the origin of the tumor. Examples of general categories include:

Carcinoma: Malignant tumors derived from epithelial cells. This group represents the most common cancers, including the common forms of breast, prostate, lung and colon cancer.
Sarcoma: Malignant tumors derived from connective tissue, or mesenchymal cells.
Lymphoma and leukemia: Malignancies derived from hematopoietic (blood-forming) cells
Germ cell tumor: Tumors derived from totipotent cells. In adults most often found in the testicle and ovary; in fetuses, babies, and young children most often found on the body midline, particularly at the tip of the tailbone; in horses most often found at the poll (base of the skull).
Blastic tumor: A tumor (usually malignant) which resembles an immature or embryonic tissue. Many of these tumors are most common in children.

Malignant tumors (cancers) are usually named using -carcinoma, -sarcoma or -blastoma as a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the organ of origin as the root. For instance, a cancer of the liver is called hepatocarcinoma; a cancer of the fat cells is called liposarcoma. For common cancers, the English organ name is used. For instance, the most common type of breast cancer is called ductal carcinoma of the breast or mammary ductal carcinoma. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the appearance of the cancer under the microscope, resembling normal breast ducts.

Benign tumors (which are not cancers) are named using -oma as a suffix with the organ name as the root. For instance, a benign tumor of the smooth muscle of the uterus is called leiomyoma (the common name of this frequent tumor is fibroid). Unfortunately, some cancers also use the -oma suffix, examples being melanoma and seminoma.

Child cancers

Cancer can also occur in young children and adolescents, but it is rare (about 150 cases per million yearly in the US). Statistics from the SEER program of the US NCI demonstrate that childhood cancers increased 19% between 1975 and 1990, mainly due to an increased incidence in acute leukemia. Since 1990, incidence rates have decreased.^[5]

DASAVATHAARAM

2008-06-18T04:42:00.000-07:00

What a super human effort! That will be the first reaction of any normal film buff who watches Kamal Haasan's [Images] Tamil magnum opus, Dasavathaaram [Images]. The film is certain to thrill and entertain the audience for all of its 165 minutes, making them feel that they are watching something unusual and spectacular on screen.

THE NEW GS 450h

2008-06-15T07:42:00.000-07:00

Making its European debut at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show, the new Lexus GS 450h luxury sports sedan follows the RX 400h SUV as the second production vehicle to introduce the technical sophistication and high-performance attributes of Lexus hybrid drive engineering to the premium automotive segment.

On sale throughout Europe from the spring of 2006, the new GS 450h further reinforces the importance of hybrid drive systems as the core powertrain technology for the Lexus luxury marque. Its new hybrid drive-train encapsulates precisely the type of driving characteristics that are the hallmark of Lexus drive-train engineering; smooth, powerful and refined, yet offering a highly engaging and rewarding driving experience.

The Lexus GS 450h is the world's first hybrid luxury sedan to combine front engine mounting with the rear wheel drive essential to sports driving dynamics.

The latest hybrid petrol/electric powered addition to the luxury Lexus range is named "450" not to indicate the cubic capacity of the engine but, rather, in recognition of a power output comparable to that of a conventional 4.5 litre, V8 petrol engine, whilst the 'h' suffix indicates the presence of Lexus' highly sophisticated hybrid drive system.

POWERTRAIN

Displaying similar operational characteristics to the RX 400h's Hybrid Synergy Drive®‚ system, a completely new, front engine, rear-wheel drive Lexus hybrid powertrain has been engineered for the GS 450h.

It features an ultra smooth running, 3.5 litre D-4S direct injection V6 petrol engine generating over 210kW/286 DIN hp mated to a high-output, permanent magnet electric motor developing over 140kW/190 DIN hp, driving the rear wheels both independently and in tandem, as appropriate. The system produces a total power output of more than 250kW / 340 DIN hp.

The petrol engine combines a new D-4S fuel injection system with high strength chain drive and roller rockers, and high torsional stiffness connecting rods. New, double slit, fan-shaped spray injectors optimise the fuel/air gas mixture formation for maximum combustion efficiency, generating higher rpm and power output with minimal emissions. The new D-4S system's combination of direct and port injection realises optimum engine efficiency throughout the power band. Direct injection improves full-power engine performance, whilst both low-power engine fuel economy and emissions reduction are enhanced through the coalition of direct and port injection systems.

In addition to the petrol engine, the new GS 450h Hybrid Synergy Drive®‚ system comprises a power control unit, a high performance nickel-metal hydride battery and a power transmission unit.

The power transmission unit consists of an electric motor, a generator, a power split device and motor-speed reduction gears. Via planetary reduction gears, the power split device combines and re-allocates power from the engine, electric motor and generator according to operational requirements. As in the RX 400h, these system components are all housed in one lightweight, highly compact transmission casing.

Unique to the GS 450h, however, the new hybrid transmission system now incorporates two-stage motor speed reduction gearing. Through the new luxury sedan's seamless, continuously variable automatic transmission, the twin stage gearing generates maximum low-gear torque for significantly enhanced acceleration, as well as extended high-gear performance for quiet, high speed cruising with improved fuel efficiency in almost all driving conditions.

Via a centre console mounted switch, the new hybrid transmission also offers a choice of three power settings; "Normal", for the optimum balance of power and traction, "Power", for maximum acceleration, and "Snow", for excellent traction control under the most slippery road conditions. Moreover, with the "Sport" manual gear change mode selected, each of the 6 sequential "steps" in gearing incorporates engine brake force in the manner of a conventional transmission, improving vehicle control and further enhancing the GS 450h's high performance sports driving experience.

HYBRID SYNERGY DRIVE® IN OPERATION

Over the course of any journey, the new hybrid drive system operates in several different modes to maximise the GS 450h's overall efficiency: At rest, the engine stops automatically to conserve fuel. Under operating conditions of low engine efficiency such as start up and low to mid-range speeds, the vehicle runs on the electric motor alone, thus eradicating CO2 emissions and providing exceptionally quiet operation. Under normal driving conditions, engine power is divided by the power split device to both drive the wheels directly and power the generator which, in turn, drives the electric motor.
In these circumstances, power allocation is constantly monitored and adjusted between engine and motor to maximise efficiency. When sudden acceleration is required, engine and electric motor again operate in tandem, with extra power supplied from the battery to boost motor response.

During deceleration and under braking, the engine switches off and the electric motor acts as a high-output generator. This regenerative braking system optimises energy management in the new GS 450h's Hybrid Synergy Drive® system by recovering kinetic energy (normally wasted as heat under braking and deceleration) as electrical energy for storage in the high performance battery. Furthermore, battery power level is constantly managed via the engine driven generator to obviate any requirement to recharge the system from an external source.

PERFORMANCE

The new powertrain equips the Lexus luxury hybrid sedan with performance characteristics on a par with conventional 4.5 litre V8 engined models.
Combined power output is over 250kW / 340 DIN hp, and the new GS 450h will accelerate seamlessly from 0-100kph in less than 6.0 seconds, the Lexus hybrid transmission system eradicating the expected 'jumps' between gears of a conventional drive-train.

Equally impressive is the potent mid-range torque afforded by the system's powerful electric motor.
Operating in tandem with the V6 petrol engine, it is capable of delivering maximum torque instantaneously, and seamlessly, upon demand. This characteristic is most beneficial in mid-range acceleration during overtaking manoeuvres, and the Lexus GS 450h will accelerate from 80 to 120kph in under 5 seconds.

Conversely, the GS 450h also proves substantially more frugal than comparable sports sedans, returning combined fuel economy figures on a par with those of a 4-cylinder 2.0 litre engined vehicle. Moreover, already compliant with EURO IV emissions standards and rated SULEV (Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle) in the USA, the new Lexus returns CO2 emissions of under 195g/km; markedly less than rival, premium sector sedans with similar engine power.

SAFETY

The new GS 450h is equipped with a class-leading range of active and passive safety systems, including the second generation of Lexus' state-of-the-art Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) system, to enhance performance, traction control and vehicle stability (For more information about VDIM, please also read section 5: 'Lexus Safety Technology')

2008-06-15T05:44:00.000-07:00

Ronald Blum | Thursday, 12 June , 2008, 03:45

Geneva: Cristiano Ronaldo whines like a toddler. He dives like a swan. He wears a perpetual smirk.

You just want to smack him.

But he's soooo good.

Ronaldo made a typically dazzling run that set up Portugal's first goal, struck a laser-beam drive for the second and dished off on a breakaway for the third in a 3-1 victory over the Czech Republic on Wednesday night, putting his nation in the quarterfinals of the European Championship.

And, of course, after he scored, he made one of those trademark winks with his right eye. The wink that says: ''Ain't I great?'' The wink he displayed after he helped get Manchester United teammate Wayne Rooney sent off from a World Cup match two years ago.